Temple of Ramses III

Temple of Ramses III
This small temple, designed and built in the lifetime of a single pharaoh, is a typical New Kingdom temple. It comprises an entrance pylon with two towers flanked by statues, a central doorwrav leading to an open court (surrounded by colonnades), and a covered terrace to the rear. From the terrace a doorway leads to the Hypostyle Hall that is roofed; the difference in height between the central and side columns is made up by square pillars which allow light into the otherwise darkened hall. Beyond lies the Sanctuary, or Holy of Holies, where the sacred statue of the god was kept. In this temple there were three sanctuaries, for Amon, Mut and Khonsu.

Temple of Ramses III

In a typical temple, the pavement rises progressively and the roof lowers from the entrance to the sanctuary; this is symbolic of the primaeval hill rising from the eternal ocean. The temple also gets progressively darker, from the open court to the inner sanctuary; from the known towards the mysterious. Only the pharaoh, or the high priest in his stead, was permitted to enter the darkened sanctuary, and to cast his eyes on the statue of the god.

The inner walls of a temple were usually covered with reliefs depicting religious scenes, ritual celebrations and sacrificial offerings in honour of the gods. The outer walls were decorated with heroic scenes of war and conquest.


Ramses III recorded his victories on the entrance pylon (a). The left-hand tower shows him wearing the Double Crown. He holds a group of prisoners by the hair with one hand and raises a club to smite them with the other. Amon stands before him, handing him the Sword of Victory and delivering to him three rows of conquered cities. These are represented as a human figure rising out of a symbolic fort that bears the name of the city. On the right-hand tower the theme is repeated but with Ramses wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. Two statues flank the doorway over which Ramses, in relief, receives the symbol of Life from Amon.

The open court is surrounded by covered passages on three sides, each supported by eight square pillars with statues of Ramses III in the form of Osiris before each. The terrace to the rear has four square pillars and four columns with bud capitals. The reliefs on the left-hand rear wall of the pylon show Ramses receiving the hieroglyph for Jubilee from the enthroned Amon. On the right- hand wall is a procession of standard-bearers and Ramses leading the priests who bear the sacred barges of the Theban triad.

Temple of Ramses III

The Hypostyle Hall, which has eight columns with papyrus-bud capitals, leads to the three sanctuaries. The reliefs show Ramses making offerings before the sacred barge of each god: Amon in the central chamber, Mut to the left and Khonsu to the right.

Returning to the Great Court, we turn east and approach the Second Pylon (P. 2) that dates to the beginning of the 19th Dynasty. The core, as already mentioned, contained thousands of the sand-stone blocks from the Sun Temples. Also buried were discarded statues, such as the huge red granite statue of Ramses II, usurped by Pinedjem, son-in-law of the high priest of Amon. It was buried under the ruins of the northern tower and now stands to the left of the central doorway (b). A small figure of Nefertari, one of the most complete statues ever found of this beautiful queen, stands in front of his legs.

The Great Hypostyle Hall (4), with its 134 columns arranged in sixteen rows, covers an area of 4,983 square metres. It is the largest single chamber of any temple in the world. The double row of central columns, which lead towards the sanctuary, are higher than the side columns. Their shafts are smooth, and they soar to a height of twenty-one metres. The spreading calyx capitals retain much of their original colour, as do the massive architraves. The shorter side columns have bud capitals. The discrepancy in height is made up by square pillars between the steps of the roof that provided the only light when the hall had its original roofing.

The Hypostyle Hall was decorated throughout. All the walls and the shafts of the columns were covered with reliefs and inscriptions showing adoration of the deities, especially Amon-Ra. Seti I was responsible for the entire northern half of the hall, and Ramses II built the southern portion, but many other 19th Dynasty pharaohs recorded their names there.

Temple of Ramses III

On the outside of the Hypostyle Hall are some important historical reliefs. On the southern wall is a record of Ramses II’s Battle of Kadesh, which contains the actual text of the treaty with the Hittites. On the northern wall are scenes of Seti I’s battles which took place in Lebanon, southern Palestine and Syria. At (c), in the upper row, we can see Seti I in his chariot shooting arrows at the enemy charioteers, cavalry and infantry who are depicted in flight. Some of the inhabitants of the conquered territory take refuge in a fortress surrounded by water. To the right Seti appears in three scenes: he binds captives, marches behind his chariot dragging four captives, and leads rows of captured Syrians to Amon, Mut and Khonsu.

In the lower row there is a triumphal march through Palestine. Seti stands in his chariot. The princes of Palestine honour him with uplifted arms while he appears to turn towards them in acknowledgement. Further along the wall is the battle against bedouin tribes in southern Palestine: some of the survivors flee to the mountains. The victorious Seti returns from Syria, along with captives. The boundary between Asia and Egypt is marked by a canal. On the Egyptian side priests and officials welcome Seti, and he delivers the captives and the booty to Amon-Ra. To the right of the doorway, at (d), are three rows of battle reliefs: the storming of Kadesh in the top row; the battle against the Libyans (with pig-tails and feathers) in the middle row; and the battle against the Hittites in northern Syria in the bottom row. On both sides of the doorway are huge reliefs of Amon-Ra who, in return for the tribute and the several rows of captured territories, which he holds by cords, presents the Sword of Victory to Seti.
The Third Pylon (P. 3) was built by Amenhotep III, and it once formed the entrance to the temple. During drainage operations in recent years, prior to reconstruction of the pylon, it was discovered that hundreds of blocks of earlier structures had been buried in its core. Among those that have been reconstructed are a magnificent 12th Dynasty pavilion built by Senusert I of fine-grained limestone, and an alabaster shrine of the reigns of Amenhotep I and Thutmose I.

Thutmose I ascended the throne early in the 18th Dynasty. He made the first major alterations to the original shrine of Amon-Ra built by the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom, and also erected the first pair of obelisks at Karnak; one still stands in the Central Court between the third and fourth pylons.

Pylons P.4 and P.5, were built by Thutmose I; Hatshepsut, his daughter and builder of the famous mortuary temple of Deir el Bahri (page 72), erected another pair of huge obelisks between them.

Hatshepsut’s standing obelisk, erected in the sixteenth year of her reign, was made of a single block of pink granite and rises to a height of twenty-nine and a half metres. It is one of the two tallest standing obelisks (the other is in Rome outside St John Lateran). The inscription records that it was quarried from Aswan, transported, and erected in seven months; a considerable feat in view of the fact that it weighed some 323 tons. The base of the second obelisk is still in situ; the upper part is near the Sacred Lake (page 70) and fragments have been taken to the museums of Boston, Liverpool, Glasgow and Sidney.

Passing through the doorway of the Fifth Pylon (P.5) we enter Thutmose I’s second colonnade. It is now very much in ruin. Beyond rises the sixth and smallest pylon (P.6) erected by Thutmose III and restored by Seti I. On each face are lists of the tribes of Nubia, Kush and Syria, which were subjugated by Thutmose Ill’s army. The conquered territories are, as usual, shown as an elliptical hieroglyph character surmounted by a human bust with arms bound behind the back.

Beyond the sixth pylon is the Hall of Records; its characteristic feature is a pair of stately granite pillars, one bearing the lotus of Upper Egypt and the other the papyrus of Lower Egypt. Together they symbolise unity between the Two Lands. This hall, constructed by Thutmose III, was where the priests of the temple kept detailed records of the sources of gifts and booty from the conquered countries. Two fine statues of the god Amon and goddess Amenet, with the features of King Tutankhamon and Queen Ankhesamon, stand to the north of the hall.

The Sanctuary (e) lies directly to the rear. The inner shrine is made of pink granite and carved with fine reliefs. The ceiling is adorned with stars on a black background, and the representations are of Philip Arrhidaeus, the half-brother of Alexander the Great who succeeded him to the throne, being crowned, presented to the gods and seated before an offering table.

A corridor runs around the sanctuary, enabling us to view the finely carved reliefs, particularly on the outer southern wall (to the left of the sanctuary). These are in four rows showing the pharaoh undergoing purification with water and other rituals attending his entrance into the sanctuary. There are also offering scenes and a fine representation of the sacred barge of Amon.

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Dwarf Seneb and his family (Dynasty VI) Pictures

Dwarf Seneb and his family (Dynasty VI)
The ancient Egyptian sculptor excelled in this piece of work of the Dwarf Seneb, who was an important official, and his family. He portrayed Dwarf Seneb with his wife holding him with her right arm and their two children in the place of the dwarf’s short legs. This group is made of painted limestone and was found in Seneb’s tomb in Giza north of Chephren’s pyramid.

Dwarf Seneb

Dwarf Seneb

Dwarf Seneb

Dwarf Seneb

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Akhenaten’s celebrated hymn

Akhenaten’s celebrated hymn
The much celebrated hymn that is inscribed in the Tomb of Aye (page 123) has been ascribed to Akhenaten himself:

'. . . . living Aten, beginner of life when thou didst shine forth in the eastern horizon, and didst fill every land with thy beauty. . . . Being afar off, yet thy rays are upon the earth. Thou art in men’s faces, yet thy movements are unseen .... The earth grows bright, when thou hast arisen in the horizon . ... The Two Lands are in festival. ... The entire land does its work. All cattle are at peace upon their pastures. Trees and pastures grow green. Birds taking flight from their nest, their wings give praise to thy spirit. All animals frisk upon their feet... .the fish in the river leap before thy face. Who causest the male fluid to flow in women and who maketh the water in mankind; bringing to life the son in the body of the mother; soothing him by the cessation of his tears .... The chick in the egg speaketh in the shell; thou givest him air in it to make him live .... How manifold are thy works. They are mysterious in men’s sight. Thou sole god, like to whom there is no other. Thou didst create the earth after thy heart, being alone, even all men, herds and flocks, whatever is upon earth, creatures that walk upon feet, which soar aloft flying with their wings, the countries of Khor [Palestine and Syria] and of Cush [Sudan], and the land of Egypt '

In about the fourteenth year of Akhenaten’s reign, Nefertiti took up residence in her northern palace, and shortly afterwards Akhenaten appointed Smenkhare, his half-brother, as co-regent  Akhenaten died, as did Smenkhare almost immediately, and Tutankhaten (later Tutankhamon) came to the throne. This boy- king, probably another half-brother of Akhenaten, restored the worship of Amon and transferred the capital back to Thebes.

The city of Akhet-Aten, still under construction, was totally razed. All that was left were a few walls and columns of no more than a metre high. It is from these ruins and from the ground-plans that archaeologists have been able to study city-planning in ancient Egypt. Elsewhere the palaces, temples and dwelling-places, which were built of sun-dried brick in the Nile valley, perished. The city at Tel el Amarna, however, which was constructed on a plain above the flood and occupied for little more than a decade, provides one of the best opportunities to study how the people in an ancient Egyptian city actually lived.

Little wonder that Tel el Amarna can claim to be one of the most thoroughly explored sites in Egypt. Work was started there in 1911 and continues to the present day.
The Art of the ‘Amarna Period’

For thousands of years the pharaoh had ruled as a god and was portrayed as great, powerful and majestic. Whether sculpted massively for temple entrance, or shown being crowned, honoured and adored in temple relief, he was symbolically depicted as a giant. He clasped captives by their long hair as a hum er holds his game; he raised his club above his prisoners as a champion above his fallen opponent. The cult of divine kingship was based on the understanding that the God-king was more than a man.

During the so-called Amarna Period, Akhenaten was depicted quite naturalistically. The movement apparent in the surviving reliefs contrasts with the chiselled outlines of earlier works. Naturalism broke with the overpowering formality of the past. The pharaoh was often shown the same size as his people. He was a mortal; flesh of human flesh, bone of human bone. He was not aloof and alone but one who moved in their very midst. He was an ordinary man, a family man, who could delight in his daughters, eat a hearty meal, and demonstrate tender affection.

Akhenaten’s chief sculptor Bak, who set the style of the Amarna art, claimed to have been an apprentice to the king himself. It seems that Akhenaten wished to exaggerate his physical imperfections in order to emphasise a pharaoh who was a mortal; just as representations of earlier pharaohs portrayed the physically perfect god.

Akhenaten’s brooding eyes were exaggerated into heavy-lidded slits. His shapely, sensitive lips were magnified. His lean face, receding forehead and thin neck became an elongated skull, drawn- in cheeks and an arching neck. Akhenaten’s soft belly was made pendulous, his thighs and buttocks overly thick, and his arms and legs spindly. Humanizing the pharaoh, with all his imperfections, appears to have been the main issue in the Amarna art.

There are two dozen enormous so-called ‘sexless’ statues of Akhenaten that were unearthed from Karnak and are dated to the earlv years of his rule. They are of obscure, symbolic meaning. On some, not all, Akhenaten is shown wearing no robe or kilt; yet, apart from the heavy breasts, there is an absence of sex organs. No pharaoh had ever before been sculpted this way. The only deity similarly represented was Hapi, the Nile-god, whose bulbous breasts symbolised fertility, but who always wore a kilt.

One plausable explanation may be that the tradition of kingship was so closely associated with the fertility of the land that Akhenaten could not ignore it. However, instead of being associated with such fertility gods as the ithyphallic god Min or the ram-god Khnum, he chose to be portrayed similar to Hapi, the one god associated with water and fertility who was not a member of a triad.

Be that as it may, the state artists worked on themes approved by the pharaoh and were free at last to portray him as realistically as they themselves had been portrayed in tomb reliefs — in a wide variety of activities and shown in free, relaxed poses. Here was a leader with a great love of nature, who could weep at the death of his daughter and be shown in tender, personal relationships with his family. He rode around the state capital in an open chariot, with streamers fly ing, and happily waving his hand. He was the teacher of the new faith. In many a nobleman’s tomb we see statements such as . . how prosperous is he who listens to thy teaching . . .’ or ‘. . . great is a servant who hears thy teaching . . .’

Fragments of slabs carved in relief were found in many homes at Tel el Amarna. They show the figures of Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their children making offerings to the Aten. They were the blessed family who served as an example, and the message is clear: adore the one whom Akhenaten adores and make offerings directly to the one to whom Akhenaten makes offerings. In a stele, which had been reused in Cairo, Akhenaten and Nefertiti, together with their sick daughter Meket-Aten, are shown prostrating themselves on the ground before the Aten in a unique gesture of humility (or perhaps pleading for her recovery). The people were shown, by simple example, to appeal directly to the source and the preserver of life - the sun, the Aten.

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Tel El Amarna (akhet-aten ‘the Horizon of Aten’)

Tel El Amarna (akhet-aten ‘the Horizon of Aten’)

Background
On the eastern bank of the Nile, across the river from the modern village of Deir Mawas, is a large crescent-shaped plain over four kilometres long and about 800 metres broad. This was the site of Akhet-Aten, ‘The Horizon of Aten’, chosen by the pharaoh Akhenaten (c. 1375-1350 BC) for his new capital. It was a site that had no history of cult activity. That is to say, there was no earlier settlement or existing priesthood.

Tel El Amarna

Unlike other cities in ancient Egypt, Akhet-Aten was built not in the fertile valley but on a barren plain. The agricultural land lay on the western bank of the Nile. The city had no enclosure wall. Yet it is evident from tomb reliefs that there were strong detachments of troops who guarded the royal family and undoubtedly patrolled the desert slopes.

Tel El Amarna

The three main streets of the city ran parallel to the river. The central quarter, which spread southwards from the modern village of el-Till to that of el-Hag Kandil, was the main residential area and also the site of the temple of the Aten. To the north and south were habitations for officials and priests. The side streets contained smaller houses for the middle class and for servants. The working class, especially those employed on the necropolis, lived in special compounds to the east of the plain. They were built on parallel streets and were uniform and comfortable, with one larger house to each compound. This probably belonged to the supervisor.

Tel El Amarna

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Sheikh El Balad (Dynasty V) Pictures

Sheikh El Balad (Dynasty V)
This is the most famous wooden statue belonging to the Old Kingdom. It is the statue of the noble Kaaper who was also known as the great priest. You can see the dignity reflected on his features. The eyes are made of quartz embedded in copper lids. It is made of a single block of sycamore wood, apart from the arms. When it was found in 1860 near Sakkarah, it reminded the workers who discovered it of their « Chief of the Village » or a Sheikh El Balad », the mayor’s assistant, hence its name.

Sheikh El Balad

Sheikh El Balad

Sheikh El Balad

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Tel El Amarna (akhet-aten ‘the Horizon Of Aten’)

Background
On the eastern bank of the Nile, across the river from the modern village of Deir Mawas, is a large crescent-shaped plain over four kilometres long and about 800 metres broad. This was the site of Akhet-Aten, ‘The Horizon of Aten’, chosen by the pharaoh Akhenaten (c. 1375-1350 BC) for his new capital. It was a site that had no history of cult activity. That is to say, there was no earlier settlement or existing priesthood.

Tel El Amarna

Unlike other cities in ancient Egypt, Akhet-Aten was built not in the fertile valley but on a barren plain. The agricultural land lay on the western bank of the Nile. The city had no enclosure wall. Yet it is evident from tomb reliefs that there were strong detachments of troops who guarded the royal family and undoubtedly patrolled the desert slopes.

Tel El Amarna

The three main streets of the city ran parallel to the river. The central quarter, which spread southwards from the modern village of el-Till to that of el-Hag Kandil, was the main residential area and also the site of the temple of the Aten. To the north and south were habitations for officials and priests. The side streets contained smaller houses for the middle class and for servants. The working class, especially those employed on the necropolis, lived in special compounds to the east of the plain. They were built on parallel streets and were uniform and comfortable, with one larger house to each compound. This probably belonged to the supervisor.

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The Aten Temple Complex

The Aten Temple Complex
The gigantic Temple of Aten was situated in the central quarter of the city. The main sanctuary was more than 1500 metres in length. It was surrounded by a wall enclosing a huge open courtyard, and  the entrance faced towards the east. Within the complex were other buildings, including the ‘Gem of Aten’ and the ‘House of Rejoicing’. The main temple was called Het Ben-ben or Temple of the Ben-ben, which referred to the pyramidon, the sacred symbol of the sun cult from earlier times at Heliopolis.

Fashionable villas
The inhabitants of Tel el Amarna were mostly refined citizens who lived in large, carefully planned houses. They were usually surrounded by a wall. Inscriptions on the door-frames contained the names of the owners. The front part, which was approached by a door in the side wall, led to a large traverse hall, which often led up to a north-oriented balcony with wooden pillars. Here petitioners would gather, and there was accommodation for servants.

In the main building was a large reception hall; its roof was supported by wooden columns. It was spacious and airy, with light filtering through windows placed high up near the ceiling. To the rear of the hall was a niche, approached by a raised step, provided with a stone basin for ablutions. (In similar niches in the houses of some officials was a sort of family altar that held a small stela of the royal family.)

Behind the reception hall were sleeping quarters. The bedrooms had raised alcoves for the beds. Bathrooms had basins, water containers and toilets; they adjoined the bedrooms. Even the most humble houses at Tel el Amarna were equipped with similar hygienic facilities.

To the rear of the sleeping quarters were the chambers for the women, with separate bathrooms. In the most palatial houses, there was often a separate upstairs balcony where members of the household could enjoy the north breeze and sleep in the outdoors, if so desired.

Each house had the cooking quarters, offices and storerooms set apart from the living quarters. Gardening appears to have been a great pleasure of the upper classes, and the gardens often had ornamental ponds that, in some cases, were decorated with statues or with a kiosk nearby. There were also cattle stalls and poultry houses.

After a few years of occupation, when construction of the central quarter was still under way, summer palaces and country houses were constructed for members of the royal family and for the nobility outside the main city. In the vicinity of the so-called Northern Palace was an aviary and a zoo; its walls were decorated with paintings of bird-life. The summer-house of Meru-Aten, to the south, had halls, decorative pools and floors painted with animals and plant life.

Builders, architects and sculptors were, of course, among the most respected inhabitants at Tel el Amarna. Sculptors particularly so, because there was a great demand for statues and reliefs of the royal family. It was in the house of the chief sculptor Thutmose that the famous bust of Nefertiti in the Berlin Museum was found. It was one of many models of heads; some were still standing on the shelf, others had fallen or appear to have been deliberately broken. Nefertiti’s head shows her to have been truly ‘Fair of Face’, which was one of her epithets.

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Tomb of Meri-Re

Tomb of Meri-Re
This is one of the largest and most well preserved tombs belonging to the high priest of the Aten, also known as ‘Beloved of Ra’. The roof of the main chamber was originally supported by four columns. Moving anti-clockwise, we follow scenes (right of the doorway) of Akhenaten at a palace window, casting forth golden ornaments to Meri-Re. On the left-hand wall he is in his chariot, driving from his palace (above) to the Temple of Aten. Leading the chariot are guards. Following him are the queen, the princesses and escorts; some are in chariots and some on foot.

Tomb of Meri-Re

On the rear wall priests await the arrival of the royal procession at the temple. (Note the storehouses, barns and other chambers enclosed in a garden.) Having completed their prayers, the royal couple emerges from the palace (right-hand wall) to be greeted by priests. In the lower row the royal couple inspect the storehouses.

Tomb of Meri-Re

On the left-hand entrance wall is a scene of the royal pair, accompanied by their daughters, worshipping the Aten. Meri-Re and another priest stand beside the altar. Also present are the royal retinue and priests. On the lower reaches of the wall blind singers are borne in two carriages.

Tomb of Meri-Re

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The Scribe (Dynasty IV)

The Scribe (Dynasty IV)
Ancient Egyptians considered the profession of the scribe to be the highest of professions. The scribe was close to the Pharaoh because of his wisdom and knowledge. This statue is made of painted limestone and is of an unknown squatting scribe holding an open papyrus roll on his knees. The eyes are of inlaid quartz and framed with bronze. Although the ancient Egyptian was very careful to keep up with artistic standards in sculpture, there is a little deviation of the statue’s head to the right side as if thinking before writing.

The Scribe (Dynasty IV)

The Scribe (Dynasty IV)

The Scribe (Dynasty IV)

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Worship of the Aten

Worship of the Aten
In the worship of the sun disc, the Aten, some scholars have seen metaphysical reasoning far ahead of the times. Others have asserted that it offered nothing new. Akhenaten himself has been variously interpreted as a mystic/ascetic and as a rebel/fanatic. Certainly, to understand Akhenaten and the brief epoch of sun worship, we must place it in the broad context of the 18th Dynasty. This was a time when the Egyptian empire extended to its greatest extent and when, to all outward appearances, it was at its most stable.

Worship of the Aten

In fact, there were undercurrents of discontent. A new warrior society had emerged from the humiliation of the Hyksos occupation. Great conquerors like Thutmose III had extended Egypt’s borders to embrace a vast empire. As a result, tribute and booty poured into Thebes. Naturally most of the wealth was bestowed upon Amon- Ra, the god of the victors, and the priests consequently came to control undreamed of material rewards. They and the cult that they promoted became tarnished by self-interest. Amenhotep IV, as he was first known, grew up in an atmosphere geared to change. His father was Amenhotep III (with whom he may have shared a coregency) and his mother was the Great Royal Wife, Queen Tiy.

The concept of the Aten (Itn), which means ‘the sun’s disc’, was not invented by Akhenaten. His grandfather, Thutmose IV recorded on a commemorative scarab (in the British Museum) that he fought a campaign in Asia ‘. . . with the Aten before (him)... to make the foreigners to be like true people (i.e. Egyptians) in order to serve the Aten forever’.  And in the reign of his father, Amenhotep III, the term Aten first came into prominent use at Thebes.

Worship of the Aten

Worship of the sun, in one form or another, is apparent thoughout ancient Egyptian history. The pharaoh himself was regarded as ‘son of the Sun-god’; important local deities, like Amon, Min and Khnum, under the influence of the solar worship, bore the sun disc on their heads and appended ‘Ra’ to their names. Daily temple rituals were oriented to the sun. The representation of Ra- Harakhte, ‘Horus of the Horizon’, which was the traditional form of the Sun-god, was a hawk crowned with the sun disc; it is, therefore, significant that the Aten, like the national god Amon-Ra, was represented as such. It was only later that the hawk gave way to the solar disc with slanting rays ending in hands.

It would appear that the priests of Amon at Thebes at first saw' no danger in allowing worship of the solar disc. They permitted several sun temples to be constructed within the sacred precincts of Amon’s temple complex at Karnak. The main difference that can be discerned between worship of Amon-Ra and the Aten in the early stages, was a vibrant call to draw the attention of worshippers away from the darkened sanctuaries of Amon-Ra toward the light of day. Stress was placed on Maat (Truth/Order) in a desire to free religious rites from the shackles of superstition encouraged by the priests of Amon and to revert to a more purified form of sun worship. In other words the people were encouraged to turn from the darkened sanctuaries of ‘The Hidden One’ (i.e. Amon) and worship the visible, unapproachable orb directly beneath the open sky.

In the sixth year of Amenhotep IV’s reign, the status quo drastically changed. He announced the founding of his new city, changed his name to Akhenaten (‘Splendour of the Aten’) and promulgated a decree that henceforth one god, the Aten, should be worshipped. He officially ordered the closing of all the temples of Amon. He gave instructions that the possessions of the state priesthood should be confiscated and that all statues of the national deity should be destroyed.

The massive temples of honour of Amon-Ra could not be dismantled but Akhenaten ordered the name of ‘Amon’ be effaced from the reliefs. His workers applied themselves to the task with exaggerated zeal, scoring out Amon’s name at the top of Hatshepsut’s lofty obelisk at Karnak and even the royal ‘cartouche’ of Akhenaten’s father, Amenhotep III.

Worship of the Aten

Two years later, in the eighth year of his reign, Akhenaten, his Queen Nefertiti (whose name was extended to include the new epithet Neferneferna^w), and their two daughters (later there were six) took up residence at Akhet-Aten. Akhenaten set up boundary stelae on the cliffs on both sides of the Nile; they recorded an oath in the name of his ‘father’ the Aten that neither he, his wife, nor his children would pass the limits he was setting and that the land would be sacred to the Aten forever.

Worship of the Aten was not so much a new realm of thought as a revision of traditional beliefs toward recognition of the unlimited power of the Sun-god. The religion of the Aten should not be regarded as a sudden outburst of spiritual inspiration. In a forever expanding world, religious concepts change. In Akhenaten’s reign sun worship was lifted from the suffocating cloak of accumulated ritual, spells, oracles and all the awesome journeys through monster- infested subterranean channels of the underworld. It was worship of the sun disc in the open, calling on the Aten as the creator and preserver of mankind.

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Southern Tombs Tomb of Mahu

Southern Tombs Tomb of Mahu
This is the tomb of a police officer, which is entered by a narrow flight of steps. In the main chamber Mahu is represented on all four walls carrying out his official duties. As we move anti-clockwise, we see him supervising the delivery of produce and lending an ear to his officials. On the right-hand wall is a scene that starts at the centre and continues on the rear wall; it depicts the king and queen in a chariot being guided on a tour of the police quarters by Mahu himself.

Tomb of Mahu

 The scene, starting at the centre of the left-hand wall and continuing on the rear wall, shows men kneeling in prayer before the Temple of Aten. The deceased himself is in the lower register. At the top of the wall the royal couple drive from the palace, preceded by runners. Immediately below, we see them on the return journey.

Tomb of Mahu

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Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret (Dynasty IV)

Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret (Dynasty IV)
This statuary group that was found in the tomb of Rahotep in Meidum represents Prince Rahotep, who was high priest of Heliopolis, and his wife Princess Nofret. They are carved out of two separate blocks of limestone, but were meant to be seen toghether. They are both painted, with inlaid eyes and in an excellent state of preservation. One can notice that usual distinction in colour between the skin of men and women thet was usually made by ancient Egyptians.

Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret

Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret

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The Egyptian Museum

The Egyptian Museum
The French Egyptologist, Mariette Pasha, insisted on the construction of a big museum to house the Pharaonic works of art. Twenty years later, the French architect Marcel Dourgnon presented the plan of the Egyptian Museum building situated in the centre of Cairo. The museum was opened in 1902 and Gasto Maspero was appointed Director. The museum contains a big library and 100 exhibition rooms occupyng two floors. In the museum’s garden, there is a big bronze statue over the marble tomb of Auguste Mariette bearing his name and dates of birth and death (1821-1881). There is also a number of statue’s representing other famous Egyptologists. The most important collection of the museum is that of Tutank- hamun. There are other masterpieces dating from the Ancient Kingdom like the Statues of Cheops, Chepren and Mycerinus. There is also the collection of Thut- mose III, Alhnatoun and a number of statues of Ramses II.

Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret

Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret

The main entrance to the Egyptian Museum
Two statues on either side of the gate represent the symbols of the North and the South of Ancient Egypt. One is holding the lotus and the other the papyrus.

Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret

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Deir el Medina: Tomb of Sennudjem,Tomb of Pashedu and Tomb of Inherkhau

Deir el Medina:

Deir el Medina

Tomb of Sennudjem
This is the tomb of the Servant in the Place of Truth in the reign of Ramses II. A narrow flight of stairs leads us to a single chamber with a low curved roof. Opposite the entrance are two particularly  noteworthy scenes. To the left Anubis, god of embalming, leans over the mummy of the deceased which lies on a lion-headed couch, and Osiris is depicted before an offering table flanked by two protective Horus eyes. To the right, is a fine, formal funerary feast with the presentation of offerings and perfumes, and the deceased being led by Anubis.

Tomb of Sennudjem

The roof is decorated with scenes showing the opening of the door of the tomb, the journey through the underworld and different chapters from the mortuary literature. The delightful agricultural scene on the right-hand wall, showing ripe wheat fields, fruits and flowers, is undoubtedly a vision of what Sennudjem hoped to enjoy in the afterlife.

Tomb of Pashedu
Pashedu was the Servant in the Place of Truth under the later Ramessides. A steep staircase leads to a vaulted corridor, with Anubis depicted on each wall, and the burial chamber where the sarcophagus, unusually made of limestone slabs rather than a single block of stone, stood against the rear wall.

Tomb of Pashedu

The two long walls are decorated with conventional scenes of Pashedu and his relatives adoring the gods. The most noteworthy scene is on the right-hand entrance wall, where the deceased crouches in prayer beside a decorative palm-tree which grows by the side of the lake.

Tomb of Inherkhau
This tomb belongs to the artistic supervisor of the necropolis in the 20th Dynasty. Its decoration, not surprisingly, is extremely good, especially in the innermost chamber where the deceased is depicted with a group of his grandchildren receiving a statuette of Osiris and a box containing a shawabti figure. He is also depicted with his wife holding candles and listening to a harp-player.

Tomb of Inherkhau

On the right-hand wall Inherkhau can be seen adoring two lions, guardians of the two horizons which came to represent Today and Tomorrow.

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Abu Simbel and the Monuments of Nubia Part 2/2

Thutmose I pushed the frontier south of Semna to ‘valleys not known to my ancestors’. The territory flourished, and many fine structures were raised on or around the sites of the earlier fortresses. Among these was a temple at Buhen, built by Hatshepsut (later claimed by her successor Thutmose III, who also restored the temple of his deified ancestor Senusert III). Amenhotep III and his Queen Tiy built a splendid temple at Soleb, on the same plan and in the same style as the Temple of Luxor (page 55). At nearby Sesibi Akhenaten built a temple. Viceroys were appointed to govern there and ensure the regularity of the annual tribute to the treasury.

Abu Simbel

By the 19th Dynasty Egyptian influence had spread southwards to the Fourth Cataract, and Napata became yet another settlement. Lower Nubia (Egyptian Nubia) was by now a mere geographical extension of Egypt and settlement in Upper Nubia and Kush was strongly encouraged. With the establishment of large communities, not only were Egypt’s technological skills introduced far southwards, but its religious tradition as well.

It is noteworthy that Nubian and Kushite nobility were treated with due respect, and some of the tombs at Luxor depict handsome princes standing beautifully attired in a procession to the state capital. A scene in the tomb of Amenhotep-Huy, viceroy of Kush in Tutankhamon’s reign, shows the tribute from Kush being presented to Huy by a large number of officials, including a princess of Kush in person. She travelled in her own chariot, protected by a sunshade and accompanied by a retinue.

Abu Simbel

These were peaceful times when even the nomadic desert tribes, usually a problem, were suppressed. The Medjay, who had long been recognised for their fighting ability, helped law enforcement in the Nile valley and even strengthened pharaoh’s armies in Asia.

Ramses II, that most prolific of temple builders, constructed six temples in Nubia between the First and Second Cataracts (Map page 126). Due to the scanty strip of valley, all were hewn out of the rocky outcrops overlooking the river. Some had free-standing statues leading from the cliff face to the river bank. Each must have had a sizeable community to support it. The stress on temples and trade, rather than on fortresses with military garrisons, was a testimonial to the solidarity of Egyptian control of its southern possession, which were by this time totally imbued with the culture of Egypt.

A change only occurred in the status of Lower Nubia in the reign of Ramses XII (1080 BC) when the high priest Hrihor became viceroy of Kush. His control of the south gave him the wealth and military might to usurp the throne of Egypt. He declared himself to be Pharaoh of Upper and Lower Egypt. But, in fact, Lower Egypt was at that time ruled by a strong family in Tanis in the Delta. Divided rule meant weakened rule, and in the confusion following Hrihor’s death, Kush became increasingly independent while, in Egypt, there was a steady decline and almost total disregard for law and order.

During these unstable years a family of Libyan descent acquired power. They were probably the descendants of captured prisoners and voluntary settlers granted land in return for military service. They took over leadership and ruled Egypt for two centuries, from 940 to 730 BC.

Meanwhile, deep in the land of Kush, Napata became the focal point of a new kingdom. It was African in origin but Egyptian in tradition and religious belief. There was a pharaonic-style court; Amon-Ra was worshipped in a magnificent temple built to his glory near Gebal Barkal, a sacred mountain near the Fourth Cataract, and the Kushite kings styled themselves with pharaonic titles.

Abu Simbel

The Kushite king Piankhy finally saw it as his duty to liberate Egypt from what he considered to be the forces of barbarism and to restore the ancient culture. He marched northwards with a strong army and presented himself to the people of Egypt as a true pharaoh. In fact, during the 25th Dynasty (750-656 BC), Piankhy and his descendants did much to restore to Egypt some of its earlier greatness. Shabako was the first Kushite king of a united Upper and Lower Egypt, and in his reign ancient texts were copied and temples restored. How long a Kushite king might have remained on the throne of Egypt we cannot say. For the Assyrian army marched on the Delta 671 BC, and in the face of their military might, the Kushites were driven back to their own land.

Apart from a short-lived revival in the 26th Dynasty, Egypt’s great civilisation was on the decline. But far to the south, the Kushite kingdom prospered. Around 600 BC the leaders decided to move their capital from Napata to Meroe (Shendi). In the fertile bend in the river, free from invasion, well-placed for trade, rich in iron ore and in wood for iron-smelting, they developed a culture that was at once a continuation of the Egyptian-influenced Napatan culture and a totally individual African culture. (More will soon be known of this civilization, for the Meroitic script, a corruption of the hieroglyphic, is at last on its way to decipherment.)

Egypt succumbed to two Persian invasions while the Meroitic Empire spread northwards. Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great, and by the reign of Ptolemy IV (181 BC), a Meroitic king, Argamanic, controlled the Nile to within sight of Elephantine.

When the Romans took over Egypt (30 BC), they signed a treaty with the Meroites, turning all Lower Nubia into a buffer zone. Yet, despite their alliance, there is evidence of conflict between the proud and independent Meroites and the Roman garrisons. On one occasion the Meroites defeated Caesar’s soldiers and actually occupied Aswan. In retaliation, however, the Roman army drove them back to their own land. Their civilization prospered until the middle of the fourth century AD.

With the departure of the Meroitic army, the Nubians were able to enjoy some prosperity once again. During the Roman period, the temple of Kalabsha, dedicated to the Nubian god Mandolis, was completed; and other temples were built at Debod, Dendur and Dakka. Worship of the ancient gods of Egypt in the land of Nubia lingered on until the sixth century, long after Egypt had been converted to Christianity.

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Dahshur

Dahshur
About two kilometres from the Sakkarah necropolis can be found the five pyramids of Dahshur, three built of stone and two of brick and all equally important.

Dahshur

The most northerly one, in brick, is that of Sesostris III (Xllth dynasty) which was once faced with sculpted Tura stone. The most southerly are the pyramids of Amon-Emhat II and Amon-Emhat III. The former, in whose burial chamber was found a splendid collection of jewels, is of stone and the latter is of brick.

Dahshur

The other two pyramids were both constructed by Snefru, the first pharaoh of the IVth dynasty. The length of the sides of the base of the one called the «red pyramid» is more than twice its height (213 metres as against 99 metres). The other one, recognisable from a long way off because of its unusual appearance, is the so-called «rhomboidal pyramid» which is also the best preserved of the necropolis. It owes its name to its odd shape, the slope of the faces changing, a little more than half way up, from 50° to 43°. Another odd feature is that it has two entrances, one to the west and one to the north, which lead to two stepped covered chambers.

Dahshur

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The Sphinx Pictures

The Sphinx
About 350 metres from Cheops’s pyramid stands the Great Sphinx, known in Arabic as Abu el-Hol which means «father of terror». Seventy three metres long, this colossal statue represents a lion with a human head which some believe to be a likeness of Chep- hren standing guard over his tomb. Originally the Sphinx was called Hor-em-Akhet, which means «Horus who is on the horizon», from which the Greeks derived the name Harmakis. Many times during the course of the centuries the body of the Sphinx has been completely covered by the sand leaving only its enigmatic features (5 metres high) uncovered. Many times too men dug it out of the sand. The most renowned restoration was that of Tutmose IV who was ordered in a dream by Harmakis to uncover the Sphinx. The defacement of this mythical man-animal which is evident today is due in part to erosion by the wind and in part to the cannon of the Mamelukes who used it for target practice.

The Sphinx

The Sphinx

The Sphinx

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Abu Simbel and the Monuments of Nubia

Abu Simbel and the Monuments of Nubia

Background
Historical perspective of Nubia and Kush Egypt and Nubia were culturally linked from earliest times. In fact, there is evidence that Nubia was populated in pre-history by tribes under regional chieftains, much as the earliest settlers in Upper Egypt. The excavation from Nubian tombs of objects of Egyptian origin, such as stone storage vessels, cornelian, amethyst and faience beads, indicate cultural exchange and diffusion from earliest times.

Abu Simbel

During the Old Kingdom, as we have seen from the rock tombs of Aswan (page 42), there seems to have been a loose sovereignty over Nubia. The people, moving with their herds of sheep and goats, relied on Egypt for grain and vegetable oil. And, well aware of the rich veins of gold-bearing quartz and iron ore in this seemingly impoverished land, Egypt was only too happy to supply their requirements.

Skirmishes with border tribes were not infrequent, and there is evidence of Egypt taking Nubian prisoners and confiscating cattle. But on the whole relations seem to have been friendly, and a state of mutual respect existed. Nubians travelled across the border into Egypt, even as far northwards as Dendera. They usually helped the Egyptians in the transportation of goods when the noblemen of Elephantine were trading with the south. And they were also recruited, on occasion, to help the Egyptian troops suppress rebellious bedouin tribes in Lower Egypt. In a decree written by Pepi I (c. 2300 BC) he makes several references to ‘the peaceful Nubians’.

Only in the Middle Kingdom (2133-1786 BC) did Nubia lose its independent status. Amenemhet I built a fortress at Semna. Amenemhet II established a trading post as far south as Kerma. And finally Senusert III fixed the southern frontier of Egypt at Semna, just above the Second Cataract. At this point, the Nile thundered through a gap in the granite barrier and provided a natural control point; it also provided a physical environment that closely resembled that just south of Elephantine.

The great fortresses of Semna and Buhen were Constructed on natural elevations; they were two of a possible half dozen other fortresses. Through its domination of Nubia, the Egyptians were not only assured of the produce from this great gold and copper- producing country, but were also in an ideal position to trade for other prized commodities further south.

Abu Simbel

Kush (Sudan), unlike its northern neighbour Nubia, was fertile. It was also rich in natural resources. Its people, the Mejay, were vigorous and courageous and strongly resisted the Egyptian occupation of Nubia. It was Senusert III who finally suppressed them. His army was aided by Nubians, who were so delighted that they celebrated the victory by turning Senusert into a national hero. A great temple was built in his honour, and this became the site of a flourishing Egyptian community. After his death Senusert was deified and worshipped for centuries later.

Generation after generation of Egyptian soldiers and settlers lived in or around the fortress towns of Nubia, slowly spreading their traditions and religious beliefs. During the Hyksos occupation of Egypt many of the fortresses were burned or abandoned, but after the war of liberation, the leaders of the New Kingdom (1567--1080 BC) turned their attention once again towards Nubia and Kush.

Thutmose I pushed the frontier south of Semna to ‘valleys not known to my ancestors’. The territory flourished, and many fine structures were raised on or around the sites of the earlier fortresses. Among these was a temple at Buhen, built by Hatshepsut (later claimed by her successor Thutmose III, who also restored the temple of his deified ancestor Senusert III). Amenhotep III and his Queen Tiy built a splendid temple at Soleb, on the same plan and in the same style as the Temple of Luxor (page 55). At nearby Sesibi Akhenaten built a temple. Viceroys were appointed to govern there and ensure the regularity of the annual tribute to the treasury.

By the 19th Dynasty Egyptian influence had spread southwards to the Fourth Cataract, and Napata became yet another settlement. Lower Nubia (Egyptian Nubia) was by now a mere geographical extension of Egypt and settlement in Upper Nubia and Kush was strongly encouraged. With the establishment of large communities, not only were Egypt’s technological skills introduced far southwards, but its religious tradition as well.

Abu Simbel

It is noteworthy that Nubian and Kushite nobility were treated with due respect, and some of the tombs at Luxor depict handsome princes standing beautifully attired in a procession to the state capital. A scene in the tomb of Amenhotep-Huy, viceroy of Kush in Tutankhamon’s reign, shows the tribute from Kush being presented to Huy by a large number of officials, including a princess of Kush in person. She travelled in her own chariot, protected by a sunshade and accompanied by a retinue.

These were peaceful times when even the nomadic desert tribes, usually a problem, were suppressed. The Medjay, who had long been recognised for their fighting ability, helped law enforcement in the Nile valley and even strengthened pharaoh’s armies in Asia.

Ramses II, that most prolific of temple builders, constructed six temples in Nubia between the First and Second Cataracts (Map page 126). Due to the scanty strip of valley, all were hewn out of the rocky outcrops overlooking the river. Some had free-standing statues leading from the cliff face to the river bank. Each must have had a sizeable community to support it. The stress on temples and trade, rather than on fortresses with military garrisons, was a testimonial to the solidarity of Egyptian control of its southern possession, which were by this time totally imbued with the culture of Egypt.

A change only occurred in the status of Lower Nubia in the reign of Ramses XII (1080 BC) when the high priest Hrihor became viceroy of Kush. His control of the south gave him the wealth and military might to usurp the throne of Egypt. He declared himself to be Pharaoh of Upper and Lower Egypt. But, in fact, Lower Egypt was at that time ruled by a strong family in Tanis in the Delta. Divided rule meant weakened rule, and in the confusion following Hrihor’s death, Kush became increasingly independent while, in Egypt, there was a steady decline and almost total disregard for law and order.

During these unstable years a family of Libyan descent acquired power. They were probably the descendants of captured prisoners and voluntary settlers granted land in return for military service. They took over leadership and ruled Egypt for two centuries, from 940 to 730 BC.

Meanwhile, deep in the land of Kush, Napata became the focal point of a new kingdom. It was African in origin but Egyptian in tradition and religious belief. There was a pharaonic-style court; Amon-Ra was worshipped in a magnificent temple built to his glory near Gebal Barkal, a sacred mountain near the Fourth Cataract, and the Kushite kings styled themselves with pharaonic titles.

The Kushite king Piankhy finally saw it as his duty to liberate Egypt from what he considered to be the forces of barbarism and to restore the ancient culture. He marched northwards with a strong army and presented himself to the people of Egypt as a true pharaoh. In fact, during the 25th Dynasty (750-656 BC), Piankhy and his descendants did much to restore to Egypt some of its earlier greatness. Shabako was the first Kushite king of a united Upper and Lower Egypt, and in his reign ancient texts were copied and temples restored. How long a Kushite king might have remained on the throne of Egypt we cannot say. For the Assyrian army marched on the Delta 671 BC, and in the face of their military might, the Kushites were driven back to their own land.

Apart from a short-lived revival in the 26th Dynasty, Egypt’s great civilisation was on the decline. But far to the south, the Kushite kingdom prospered. Around 600 BC the leaders decided to move their capital from Napata to Meroe (Shendi). In the fertile bend in the river, free from invasion, well-placed for trade, rich in iron ore and in wood for iron-smelting, they developed a culture that was at once a continuation of the Egyptian-influenced Napatan culture and a totally individual African culture. (More will soon be known of this civilization, for the Meroitic script, a corruption of the hieroglyphic, is at last on its way to decipherment.)

Egypt succumbed to two Persian invasions while the Meroitic Empire spread northwards. Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great, and by the reign of Ptolemy IV (181 BC), a Meroitic king, Argamanic, controlled the Nile to within sight of Elephantine.

When the Romans took over Egypt (30 BC), they signed a treaty with the Meroites, turning all Lower Nubia into a buffer zone. Yet, despite their alliance, there is evidence of conflict between the proud and independent Meroites and the Roman garrisons. On one occasion the Meroites defeated Caesar’s soldiers and actually occupied Aswan. In retaliation, however, the Roman army drove them back to their own land. Their civilization prospered until the middle of the fourth century AD.

With the departure of the Meroitic army, the Nubians were able to enjoy some prosperity once again. During the Roman period, the temple of Kalabsha, dedicated to the Nubian god Mandolis, was completed; and other temples were built at Debod, Dendur and Dakka. Worship of the ancient gods of Egypt in the land of Nubia lingered on until the sixth century, long after Egypt had been converted to Christianity.

Read more »

Abu Simbel and the Monuments of Nubia Part 1/2

Abu Simbel and the Monuments of Nubia
   
Background
Historical perspective of Nubia and Kush Egypt and Nubia were culturally linked from earliest times. In fact, there is evidence that Nubia was populated in pre-history by tribes under regional chieftains, much as the earliest settlers in Upper Egypt. The excavation from Nubian tombs of objects of Egyptian origin, such as stone storage vessels, cornelian, amethyst and faience beads, indicate cultural exchange and diffusion from earliest times.

Abu Simbel

During the Old Kingdom, as we have seen from the rock tombs of Aswan (page 42), there seems to have been a loose sovereignty over Nubia. The people, moving with their herds of sheep and goats, relied on Egypt for grain and vegetable oil. And, well aware of the rich veins of gold-bearing quartz and iron ore in this seemingly impoverished land, Egypt was only too happy to supply their requirements.

Skirmishes with border tribes were not infrequent, and there is evidence of Egypt taking Nubian prisoners and confiscating cattle. But on the whole relations seem to have been friendly, and a state of mutual respect existed. Nubians travelled across the border into Egypt, even as far northwards as Dendera. They usually helped the Egyptians in the transportation of goods when the noblemen of Elephantine were trading with the south. And they were also recruited, on occasion, to help the Egyptian troops suppress rebellious bedouin tribes in Lower Egypt. In a decree written by Pepi I (c. 2300 BC) he makes several references to ‘the peaceful Nubians’.

Abu Simbel

Only in the Middle Kingdom (2133-1786 BC) did Nubia lose its independent status. Amenemhet I built a fortress at Semna. Amenemhet II established a trading post as far south as Kerma. And finally Senusert III fixed the southern frontier of Egypt at Semna, just above the Second Cataract. At this point, the Nile thundered through a gap in the granite barrier and provided a natural control point; it also provided a physical environment that closely resembled that just south of Elephantine.

The great fortresses of Semna and Buhen were Constructed on natural elevations; they were two of a possible half dozen other fortresses. Through its domination of Nubia, the Egyptians were not only assured of the produce from this great gold and copper- producing country, but were also in an ideal position to trade for other prized commodities further south.

Kush (Sudan), unlike its northern neighbour Nubia, was fertile. It was also rich in natural resources. Its people, the Mejay, were vigorous and courageous and strongly resisted the Egyptian occupation of Nubia. It was Senusert III who finally suppressed them. His army was aided by Nubians, who were so delighted that they celebrated the victory by turning Senusert into a national hero. A great temple was built in his honour, and this became the site of a flourishing Egyptian community. After his death Senusert was deified and worshipped for centuries later.

Abu Simbel

Generation after generation of Egyptian soldiers and settlers lived in or around the fortress towns of Nubia, slowly spreading their traditions and religious beliefs. During the Hyksos occupation of Egypt many of the fortresses were burned or abandoned, but after the war of liberation, the leaders of the New Kingdom (1567--1080 BC) turned their attention once again towards Nubia and Kush.

Read more »